A typical infant comes into the world with all of its senses: it can see, taste, hear, feel, and smell. However, all of these senses are not yet completely developed. Also, they can move. The muscles, bones, and nervous system are already developed and ready for use. The first duty from the early weeks and months is to learn to use their sensory and motor (movement) abilities, to learn how to use these sensory and use it efficiently. This has to be most remarkable task anyone faces in life. Think about the incredible amount of growth a child most make in its first two years. There are no other period in all of our life will be mark by such massive and speedy development.

Infants’ Sensory Development

In the past, it was thought that the infants’ sensory development was minimal. These days we know the infants can see almost the first time when it opens its eyes; there is evidence that infants even has some depth perception. What this means, is a newborn can locate objects in space. Many tests have revealed that infants will turn their heads and move their eyes in the path of a loud noise within the first minutes after birth. In addition, mothers have always recognized that their infants react to touch, although they have not always know that the infant can differentiate among tastes like bitter, sour, and sweet. Infants will also twist away from any unpleasant smell almost immediately after birth.

All of these sensory mechanisms are the newborn baby’s tools of exploring the world. Different theorists have different explanations for how or why an infant responds to stimulus.

In an experiment conducted by Robert Fantz, infants from the age of two months were shown pictures of a yellow disk, a white disk, a red disk, a bull’s eye, a circle with newsprint, and a human face. The time the infants spent staring at each picture was carefully measured. It was soon determined that the babies responded most to a human face.

The infants set their stare on the areas of highest black and white contrast. The youngest subjects concentrated on the hairline. Those several weeks older began to focus on the eyes. Other experiments showed that the infants were more interested in patterns than solid colors, and that they devoted more time to complex patterns than to simple ones.

Similarly, infants respond more to tones within the register of human speech. In fact, they are most responsive to high-pitched tones in the female speech register. The common dooling and babbling that adults use to “communicate” with a baby seem to correspond to the things the baby is “interested in.”

Someone might say that the newborn responds to stimuli since it has been conditioned by the parents to do so. While other people say, the infant responds because it somehow wants or needs to learn. These theories are too complicated to debate here. Yet there is no doubt that within a matter of weeks or months an infant not only responds to the things it sees and hears but it learns to exert some control over its environment.

An interesting question is how an infant chooses between the virtually overpowering varieties of stimuli around the surrounding environment. If the infant respond equally and continuously to all the stimuli, this would soon be overwhelmed. It appears that the infant becomes habituate to a given stimulus when it has been present for a long time; the child studies a new stimulus, responds to it, and then (if it continues) tunes it out. As soon as a change is made in the stimulus, even a minor one, the infant responds once again.

In one particular experiment, a number of infants was presented with a strong-smelling mixture of odors. Initial, they responded powerfully to the odor. Slowly, the infants started to ignore the odor and then the concentration of the odor was reduced. Once again, the infants responded to the odor. Apparently, this minor change even in a negative direction was sufficient to reawaken their interest. Therefore, we can assume that infants are quite sensitive even to small changes in their environment. This sensitivity probably extends beyond the simple realm of sight, smell, and touch. Infants often seem able (perhaps through a combination of sensory clues) to sense the emotional climate around them. Infants may become fussy when the mother is nervous or upset.

Infants do not always wait for outside stimulus. Studies have shown that they actively seek experience. In one such study, two and three-month-old infants were presented with a visual display that was controlled by a pacifier. By sucking at different rates the babies could control the focus of the picture. They soon learned to keep the pictures in focus.

In a different experiment, infants learned to turn on a motorized mobile by a specific sequence of arm and leg movements. When the correct sequence was changed, they soon learned the new sequence as well.

This is a commanding proof that infants are engaged in an active effort to make sense out of their environments and to use control over their environment. They seem to be self-motivated to solve problems and gain pleasure from a successful outcome.

The fertilization of an egg by a sperm is the start of pregnancy and conception. The first two weeks of cell division, which follow by fertilization, there is little differentiation between the kinds of cells produced. However, after that first two weeks the embryo starts to produce diverse cells and primitive structures that will become the main organs such as the heart, veins, brain, kidney, eyes, liver, and digestive tract. Even though the embryo is less than an inch long, it already develops into a recognizable human form.

By around the 16th weeks the embryo now resembles a human infant measuring about six or seven inches in length. During this period the fetus, as the embryo is now called, starts to move about within the uterus, and the mother can feel the movement.

Right through the rest of the pregnancy, the fetus develops by increasing in size and its complexity. While the basic human structure develops in the first few weeks, the inner organs now grow and setting up the functions once the organs are fully develop. In the third month of pregnancy, the fetus has primitive reflexes; by the end of the fifth month, it can make grasping gestures, blink, suck, and swallow.

If a fetus younger than 24 weeks, it is generally not capable to live; that is, the fetus at that stage of development is unlikely to survive outside the uterus despite the most sophisticated medical care.

It is unclear when the fetus becomes a psychologically functional being, there are many debates and yet there are no definitive answers. It is clear that the biological life starts at the moment of conception, but the quality of that life is open to debate. The question is the fragile, quickly growing group of cells a human being? Or is the fetus becomes human when it starts to move in the mother’s body? Or does the fetus become human when it has developed enough to survive outside of the uterus? Or is it only possible to talk about a human after the baby has been born?

These questions are not theoretical, because they are at the heart of the issues such as abortion, in utero surgery, stem cell research, genetic planning, amniocentesis, and the morality of using extraordinary life-saving measures.

Health of the mother

Clearly, it is less arguable is the impact of the fetal surroundings the developing infant. A large amount of evidence had proved the physical state of the mother throughout her pregnancy plays a vital responsibility in the well-being of the her infant.

It is true that mothers who are suffering from malnutrition, are probably to have babies who are smaller, often malformed, and more susceptible to illness than normal nourished infants. There is also proof with children suffering from malnutrition mothers are more prone to develop learning disabilities. This is a fact, even if a previously malnourished mother receives an adequate diet during pregnancy.

Excessive smoking or drinking alcohol is high risk for fetal development, as well as exposure to x-rays, narcotic addiction, and the use of many legal drugs. The safest way to avoid problems during the pregnancy period is to stay away from any drugs, even aspirin except purposely suggested by a physician for use during pregnancy.

Many infections can affect the fetus through the mother. The fetus is most at risk during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. Women who believe they may be pregnant or women who are pregnant need to avoid vaccine against viral diseases, such as rubella and measles, because the vaccine may cause birth defects.

As we understand more about the environmental factors that may lead to affect the fetus, we still know very little concerning how the mother’s emotional state affects the development of her unborn infant. Presently there are some proofs that indicate the severe anxiety, anger, or grief may be harmful.

Genetic factors

In the normal fetus, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. One set of 23 comes from the father; the other set from the mother. These set of chromosomes hold the instruction that will makeup the baby’s genetic structures. For instance, chromosomes establish whether the fetus is male or female, the color of its eyes, hair, and all other physical and emotional conditions.

Abnormal condition in the chromosomes may affect the series of the genetic diseases. The most commonly known are Down’s syndrome (mongolism), cystic fibrosis, and muscular dystrophy. In the past decades, a test known as amniocentesis, resolve whether some of these illnesses afflict an infant has been developed. This test involves in the removing some of the liquid nearby the fetus (amniotic fluid) from the mother, and then culturing the material in a laboratory. This test is normally used in mothers who are at high risk for Down’s syndrome. If the test indicates that the baby will be afflicted, the mother may opt for a therapeutic abortion.

Regardless of all of these possible genetic diseases, the big majority of infants are born healthy and able to cope with their new environment. Overall, nature takes very good care of the unborn child. The best suggestion for the expectant mother is to avoid known or potential risks to the baby and to put herself in the care of a qualified physician early in her pregnancy.

At birth

In the past years, the focus has been given to the birth of the infants. Possibly the most significant emphasis is making the delivery process as safe for both child and mother as much as possible. An additional concern is the training of expectant mothers, to let them know what to expect during labor and to teach them to cooperate throughout the labor and birth process.

In the 1940’s and ’50’s, most mothers were given a general anesthetic before the last stages of labor. They remembered nothing of the birth itself and awakened to their new baby. More recently, doctors have voiced several objections to the indiscriminate use of anesthetics. The most serious is the danger it poses for the baby. Any medication in the mother’s bloodstream before birth soon passes into the baby’s bloodstream as well. In some cases, the depressant effects of the anesthetic can cause a child to be born half unconscious and not able to breathe for itself. Heavy anesthesia also reduces the cooperation the mother can give in the birth process and may reduce the strength and effectiveness of the muscular contractions that push the baby out into the world.

In recent years, anesthesia has been used more sparingly (although it is still available and can be of great assistance in difficult cases). Many expectant mothers attend prenatal training classes in “natural childbirth.” They learn how to cooperate during the birth process and are thoroughly advised on the stages of labor. Many women trained in this way are able to give birth with little or no medication. The experience of being awake and alert at the moment of birth more than makes up for the exertion and pain of the delivery itself.

Still another recent concern has been the effect of birth on the child. If (as we now suspect) the unborn infant is conscious and has feelings, birth must be the first great shock of life. The difficulty of passing through the birth canal leaves many babies bruised and exhausted. In addition, they are leaving a snug, thoroughly controlled environment for the uncertainties of the outside world. We can only speculate on what effect noises, bright lights, and cold air have on the newborn.

Some physicians have suggested that delivery might better be accomplished without the bright lights of the conventional delivery room. Other practitioners advocate delivery at home rather than in a hospital in cases where a normal delivery is expected. There are hazards to home deliveries—if a medical crisis develops, help is not close at hand. But it is true that a normal delivery can be accomplished at home if preparations have been made beforehand.

One ingredient of many natural childbirth programs has been the participation of the father. Rather than waiting nervously and helplessly in a hospital waiting room, he has been encouraged to learn about the process of childbirth and to be present at the delivery, both to help his wife and to share the excitement of the birth of their daughter or son.

Some doctors and hospitals are more sympathetic to natural childbirth than others. Parents who wish to use such methods should inquire well before the delivery date about training sessions and about hospital policies. They should also remain flexible; if there are complications during labor, natural childbirth may not be possible. The physician may prescribe anesthesia in such cases or may decide on delivery by Caesarean section. When complications arise, modern medical facilities and procedures are most welcome to protect the health of both child and mother. Parents should not feel they have failed in any way if such procedures are necessary.

The moment of birth seems one of great importance to expectant parents and is often the goal toward which they have aimed for weeks or months. Yet the moment of birth is much more a beginning than an ending, as all new parents soon discover.

Don’t eat too much “junk food”: Sugary food, candy, soda, chips and other sweets have little nutrition that’s good for you or the baby.

No alcohol: Even a drink a day might harm the baby. Get help from your doctor if you need to stop drinking.

Don’t take drugs or medications: Not even aspirin without consulting with your doctor.

No caffeine: Caffeine is in coffee, tea, chocolate and soda. Don’t forget to tell every doctor or dentist who wants to x-ray when you’re pregnant. Then they can decide whether to go ahead or not.

Go to all your clinic or doctor’s appointments: You and your baby will need regular checkups.

Eating right: Eat lots of fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat. Drink lots of milk, water, and juice.

Get plenty of rest

Do’s and don’ts of pregnancy: Things change over the years. Today most doctors recommend continuing work and other normal activities up to the last few weeks. At the same time, concern for the effect of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and other substances has greatly increased.

In the 1940’s, Dr. Spock advised parents to loosen up the tight scheduled approach to child rising: at that time this idea seemed revolutionary. He advocated considering each child as an individual, that each child’s needs are different from other children. His advice was important in the growth of a more relaxed, but yet more child-centered approach to child rising.

In 1985, the fifth edition of Baby and Child Care was revised to include topics such as single parenting. Spock himself had became a controversial figure for his activities opposing the war in Vietnam, but his book continued to be the most used manual for baby care. As its first title made clear, Dr. Spock was a firm believer in common sense, and millions of parents continued to rely on his calm, reasonable advice.

The studies of child development normally start with the infant and up. Most recently, there is more research on the fetus, about 38 weeks from beginning to birth. With new technology like microsurgery in the uterus to ultrasound testing, has provided scientists and parents with new understanding of the progress of the fetus in the first nine months before the infant arrived.

Mesopotamia

If you are wondering, where was the beginning of human civilization? The evidence would suggest Egypt, although there were equally strong cases for the Mesopotamia, located in the plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern day Iraq. Both Egypt and Mesopotamia required agriculture in fertile river valleys for their survival. Around 3000 B.C., both civilizations created rich and highly sophisticated cultures. However, that was the only resemblance between these great ancient civilizations.

The desert that surrounded Egypt was its greatest defense, except Mesopotamia had no natural defenses. Its lavish plain was open to attack on all corners. Because of that reason, many different nomadic tribes came and controlled Mesopotamia for many centuries. The history of this region indicated a never-ending tale of turmoil, invasions, fighting and wars.

For many years of wars, the Mesopotamians people were a mix of conquering and conquered tribes who came, then established themselves in this prosperous land. One of the earliest tribes was the Sumerians. The Sumerians settled in the northern part of Mesopotamia prior to 3000 B.C.

The Sumerians invented the potter’s wheel and invented one of the first forms of writing known to man (left). The writing was called cuneiform, which was a language written by making small wedge-shaped marks on a soft clay tablet. Clay was the only material accessible to the Sumerians in large quantity. Nothing like Egypt, but Mesopotamia had no stone or timber, the population had to used sun-dried mud bricks to build their homes and temples.

The great temple structures that were ruled by ziggurats, the enormous brick “stairways to heaven,” were the trait of the Sumerian architecture. It raised a number of stories, and reached by steep flights of steps. These enormous temple buildings were the crown of religious shrines. These religious shrines were the Mesopotamian equivalent of the pyramids of Egypt. However, these once great buildings collapsed back into piles of earth. The mud bricks are less long-lasting than stone.

The Sumerians were a deeply religious people, and the success of their civilization required them to spend great amounts of time praying to their gods. But they were also businessmen whose schedules would not permit their constant attendance at temple. The solution to this rather sticky problem was “worship by proxy.” That is, the Sumerians deposited small statues in the temples to substitute for the absent person. The effect was the same as if the businessman were there himself. These little figures were often inscribed with short prayers, and they communicated with the gods through their enormous staring eyes.

By 2360 B.C., the Sumerians had united with the Akkadians to establish an illustrious and powerful empire. But within a few hundred years, it was destroyed by the Amorite Semites who, in turn, were overcome by new waves of invaders. After centuries of turmoil, the great city of Babylon came into being. It introduced a magnificence previously unknown to Mesopotamia. Babylon was founded by Hammurabi, author of the world’s first written code of laws, circa 1780 B.C. Civilized, powerful, and spectacular, Babylon became the cultural center of Mesopotamia.

Within a few short centuries, however, this brilliant civilization was devastated by the ruthless Hittites. Subsequent invasions brought the ferocious Kassites and later, the most terrifying of all, the dreaded Assyrians. The Assyrians also built enormous fortresses in order to consolidate their widespread conquests. Strangely, the Assyrians produced some very great artists who brought the art of carving to unprecedented heights.

The favorite themes of the Assyrians were military campaigns and animal hunts, which show noble beasts collapsing under Assyrian attack. Exquisitely carved wild horses attempt escape and caged lions are mercilessly slaughtered. The Assyrians delighted in showing pain, and they used their unparalleled skills of observation to portray agonized animals, bleeding and weak, their energies exhausted from the chase. Assyrian art was cruel, but it was more realistic and more vividly rendered than any other in the ancient world; it introduced emotion into art.

Ont of the art was a dying lioness, pierced by arrows and bleeding heavily, attempts to stand. But her back legs are paralyzed and they drag heavily behind her. Powerful forepaws bulge with exertion. She lets out a final roar; in a moment she will die.

After roughly three centuries of unthinkable atrocities, the Assyrians were defeated in the sixth century B.C. by the combined forces of their abused subjects and neighbors. Babylon rose again, more fabulous than ever. Under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar, the city enjoyed great prosperity as an international trade center, and it became the greatest metropolis of the East. The king created the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This spectacular structure was built of mud bricks, and like all Mesopotamian architecture, almost nothing of it remains.

One of the very few extant structures is the Ishtar Gate, the major entrance to Babylon. It, too, was made of mud bricks, but it was protected by a covering of brightly colored glazed bricks, boldly ornamented with lions, bulls, and dragons.

In the sixth century B.C., the Persians became the dominant Eastern power, and essentially ended the complicated, but brilliant, history of ancient Mesopotamia.

The Persians had been a seminomadic tribe with no great interest in art. However, gradually, an authentic imperial art evolved, combining Mesopotamian traditions, the native Persian love of ornament, and inspiration from Greek artists. The effects of this marriage can be best appreciated at Persepolis, the site of the most ambitious Persian palace.

The palace is an enormous structure, more than a quarter-mile long and nearly 1000 feet wide. It is approached by a broad staircase, the walls of which are carved with an endless procession of figures paying tribute to the king. Inside, the palace’s gold and silver ceilings rest on gigantic animal figures that are carved atop lofty columns.

Persian power and wealth were world renowned. In less than 50 years, the Persians were transformed from a nomadic tribe into the most powerful people on Earth. In 525 B.C. they conquered Egypt; they might have taken possession of Europe as well had it not been for the heroic resistance of the Greeks. The Persians were finally humbled in the fourth century B.C. by Alexander the Great.

The textile industry

The textile industry helped pave the road for the industrialization in the United States. One of the earliest industrial advances in the United States was the advance of the machinery required to operate a textile mill. The inventor of that machinery was Samuel Slater (1768-1835) who came to the United States from England. He used to worked in a textile mill with mechanical spinning machine, also other mechanical equipment, that were invented by one of the owners, Richard Arkwright. With his experience, Slater assisted the construction of a mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, using Arkwright’s designs. In 1973, the mill was fully mechanized and that was the first true factory in the United States.

In 1798, Eli Whitney (1765-1825) invented the cotton gin that allows the cotton industry to expand across the country. The invention of the cotton gin was even greater contribution than the textile mill. During that time the government order 10,000 muskets, to accomplish that Whitney changed the manufacture procedure into specific tasks and separated those tasks with his workers. The workers would perform the same single task repeatedly. Then Whitney designed the tools necessary to produce all the parts of a musket where each parts are the same and interchangeable. This lead the way to the factory system with specialize tasks and interchangeable parts.

Steam power

While the early industrial America need waterpower to function the factories, this mean factories need be located close to rivers. The invention of steam engines allow factories to be built anywhere, this allows factories to be built closer to available labor, raw materials, and markets.

Advancement in transportation and communication

With the introduction of steam power, it also made national transportation system possible with steam trains. Before steam power, most products were transported by ships in water or transported by wagons overland. The transportation of goods to areas faraway from rivers proves to be difficult and very slow. However, that changed when railroads were built.

During the 1830’s, railroads connected main business areas of the eastern seaboard. In 1869, the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad were connected in Utah, connecting the East and West coasts. That was a great accomplishment allowing goods and people to be transported inland across the country within a week. This open up new markets to manufacturers and made raw materials more accessible. For instance, customers in New York can buy goods coming from in New England and vice versa. The entire U.S. economy was in the new era with the entire economy being integrated.

The development of the telegraph also helped economic growth by making information regarding markets more available to producers, who could then take advantage of those markets through improved transportation facilities.

During the American Civil War, increased the expansion of industrial development. The requirement of producing huge amount of military products in relatively small period need new industrial advancements for the production processes. American factories became more efficient and productive to meet the demand of the Civil War. Following the Civil War, these factories no longer require to produce military products and their technology were used to produce non-military, household products.

There were a relatively small group of entrepreneurs and sometimes brutal business people referred as Robber Barons. Who were responsible for the economic productivity during the 19th and early 20th centuries. They helped built the industrial system that served as the groundwork for future economic growth in America.

The start of the corporations

Even though business that form the corporations were known back in the previous era in the colonial period, it was not common. The majority of corporations were religious organizations or educational or groups, responsible for the operations of public services like the toll bridges and canals.

During the 1800’s, there were many large businesses in partnerships. When the 19th century ended, corporations came into play. Advocates of the partnership were form and felt that executives would be more attached to their company as partners rather than as corporate officers. However, as long as profits were sufficient for their business, the partnership would work out fine. In the late 1800’s, many businesses decided the profits were enough to finance more expansions. The corporate structure of business provided a better way to capital markets than with partnerships.

During the 1890’s, many larger industrialized businesses, like Procter & Gamble, P. Lorillard, and Westinghouse Electric, all form the corporation structure. Near the opening of the 20th century, many corporations were formed and dominated the manufacturing, mining, transportation, and utilities industries.

Monopolies and trusts

Because of the industrial and technological progress of the 19th century, access to resources, a good political environment, and entrepreneurial skills. Many monopolies existed in all sort of industries by the turn of the century. Monopoly conditions were also existed in industries that were not dominated by a single company, most often through the use of business pools. A business pool was an agreement between companies in an industry that restricted competition among them. Marketing areas were divided into territories, each territory was assigned to a particular company that sell its product free of rivalry from other competitions. The business pools were normal between the 1880’s and 1890’s in metal, steel, explosives, meat products, tobacco products, and other industries.

Ultimately, numerous of pools transformed into business trusts. This is the arrangements where the stockholders of the competing companies give over their shares to a group of trustees who controlled the companies in a manner as to removing the competition among the formerly independent company. In the late 1800’s, the business trusts normally occur in the sugar, whiskey, cottonseed oil, lead, and the salt industries. Trusts were referred as illegal in various states and it were replaced by the holding companies that still occur today with in various industries.

There was a huge cost to pay with the industrial expansion in the 19th century. The cost of the labor was high. John D. Rockefeller was starting to become a billionaire, while the working conditions in the factories floor were poor and wages were low. There were children workers working about 70 hours a week in the coalmines for $2 a day. During 1865 to 1900, the separation among the rich and the poor increased. When the 1900 came, 10% of the population owned 90% of the wealth.

Because of the appalling labor conditions contributed to the significant economic expansion during that time. With low wages allow greater investment structures to take place; without the low wages, the development of the 19th century industrial would not have been achievable. Instead of increasing wages with their profits or develop better working conditions, most companies were using their money to expand their businesses.

In the 1900, monopolies continued to rise as well as the public and government concern. In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. This act, contracts, conspiracies, and combinations in restraint of trade were prohibited, as were monopolies and attempts to monopolize. Even though it was many more years before monopolies were efficiently controlled, the passing of the Sherman Act started the greater participation by government in the affairs of business.

Still new technologies were constantly developing throughout the 20th century, with daring entrepreneurs once more play the key role. Henry Ford was the most important entrepreneur during this period. In 1913, Ford introduced the production line, it was a breakthrough in the manufacture of automobiles and it changed the way American manufacture goods. Ford assembly line increased worker efficiency and productivity that made mass production feasible.

The start of consumer credit

For the first time in 1920’s, there were a big increase in consumer purchases as wages increased and consumer credit became important. Before 1913, banks usually lent money to businesses and not individual consumer. Even getting mortgages were uncommon.

Later in the late 1800’s and beginning of 1900’s, there was a large boost in the supply of money. One of the main reasons for that were the enormous gold discoveries in the West. Between the 1890 to 1914, the gold supply in the United States nearly tripled. This quickly boosted the supply of money, which drove the interest rates down and more loans were accessible to the public.

The fall of the tycoons

The time between 1900 and 1929 was a time during which ownership of the biggest companies scatter. The ownership of these companies were passed from the hands of a few men into the hands of thousands of corporate shareholders and their professional managers. Production and more business expansion continued during this period, however the structure of American’s industry had altered forever.

World War II (left), the war resulted in the demand for war products such as tanks, air-crafts, which helped boosted the U.S. economy lifting it out of the Great Depression.

Once that happened, there were life appearing in different part of the planet.

First life

During that time the atmosphere contains carbon, many different minerals and there were plenty of water. At the time of first life, the temperature was extreme, the surface of Earth was very hot that water evaporated quickly or it was so cold that it froze. This type of temperature was essential for the beginning of life on Earth.

All life first begins in the oceans, because water protects life from the sun’s radiation but at the same time able to use the sun’s radiant as energy. The earliest fossils of a living organism go back to 3.5 billion years. These first living organisms are like today’s cyanobacteria, but back then, they were prokaryotic, photosynthetic cells. (Prokaryotes are the most primitive cells, lacking the specialized units called organelles found in later, more complex cells.)

Anything dating back beyond 3.5 billion years was never found, however these fossil cells already developed shells that leads scientists to believe there were other living organisms living on earth much earlier, perhaps 3.8 billion years ago, right after the Earth’s crust was form. Scientists’ hypothesis that the first cells were heterotrophs feeding on organic matter, and later photosynthesis came about.

Age of bacteria

During the early stages of first life on earth, the most dominate life were the cyanobacteria. For about 2.5 billion years, it was releasing oxygen and building the supply of that gas in the atmosphere. Oxygen breathing organisms first appeared 1.5 billion years ago, when eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus and other organelles) first appeared.

Around 1.2 billion years ago, a number of eukaryotes are thought to have taken in smaller photosynthetic cells or cell units that went living inside some eukaryotes in a symbiotic union that benefited both. Consequently, it was the start of a strain that ended up becoming plants. A few of the eukaryotic cells that remained heterotrophs became the ancestors of animals.

Multicellularity

The presumably method for the rise of multi-cellular animals is because of the combination of the previous independent and free-living one-celled organisms in the form of a colony. As members of a colony, the cells began to specialize and eventually lose the ability to live on their own.

The simplest of all animals are sponges, let’s use it as a living model. For example, if a piece of a sponge was torn away, the cells within the sponge will start to move randomly. When the cells encounter another cell, they stop moving and form clusters of cells. When there are enough cells formed to form an adequate mass, each cell seems to remember its unique arrangement and function. Then the cells push on until they are back to their correct places so the sponge is back functioning.

One-cell organisms benefit from different advantages. Microorganisms could survive a nuclear holocaust that destroyed the multi-cellular life. Furthermore, one-cell organisms may be considered immortal. When a protozoan divides, the daughter cells are equally as old or as young.

Microorganisms do die from dehydration, predation, and in many other extreme environment, except it does not have a natural cause of death.

So why some cells mass together to form multicellularity?

The main benefit of multicellular organisms is the size. Multicellular organisms are bigger than one-cell, that mean they are likely to eat something rather than being eaten. Also, multicellular organisms have better control over their surroundings than microorganisms because of their superior mobility, which allow animals move away from harmful environments or to flee from predators or to protect themselves.

However, there are some drawbacks with multicellularity. One drawback is that multicellularity is expected to die. All multicellular animals have a limited life span. They are born, grow, age and die.

Philosophers

An English philosopher John Locke, says that all knowledge is acquired from experience. A child is like a blank sheet of paper in which all experiences could be written on it. If this were true, controlling the environments and setting which the child was raised would lead to an expected outcome.

This viewpoint gave little influence to the child’s inborn predisposition to become or do certain things. They properly acknowledged the role of cause and effect in the child’s development.

A German philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that there are different categories of thinking and it does not arrive from experiences. With that view, the child is believed to have an innate ability to arrange experience and information.

Observational technique

In 1800’s, philosophical schools examine the ways in which children develop. Theorists focused on the child as a separate entity rather than as a small adult. One motion for this research was the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin. Psychologists became fascinated in the probable parallels between the progress of children and that of animals. Psychologists compared different stages of behavior and certain behaviors that encouraged survival.

Darwin’s theories of evolution center on change bringing scientific study out the laboratory into the natural surroundings of its subjects. If other animals could be studied in their natural surroundings by careful observation, it make sense that children could also be studied with the same method. As a result, the naturalistic or observational approach of studying children was created.

Mental testing

About the same time during the start of the 1800’s, there was an increase fascination toward children education throughout the Western world. It was a time for larger educational opportunities for many children in which brought an increased interest in the different types of education that would be suitable for different children. The strategies of picking children for continued education were random and subjective. The need to expand the scientific criteria for evaluating students and mental testing children, a practice still use in today modern education.

A psychologist in France, Alfred Binet along with Theodore Simon developed a test that claimed to measure the capacity of learning rather than current knowledge. The test was the first IQ (intelligence quotient) or mental-age test, it was revolutionary for the attempt to predict future performance.

In Germany Wilhelm Wundt was researching the senses that measures of human intelligence. Even though this technique was very controversial, it aims to predict development or behavior by establishing norms and measuring each person performance. This normative method was one of the leading themes of developmental psychology today. It is still in-use in informal evaluation, as when we would expect a baby to start walking sometime around his/her first birthday.

Psychoanalytical theory

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Freudian perspective was formulated in Austria has provoked more obsessive dispute than any other theory of behavior to this date.

Freud concluded that human is face by inner conflicts that must be resolved. These conflicts are between such primitive forces as life and death, love and hate, and creativity and destructiveness. Freud related all development to the resolution (or lack of resolution) of such early internal conflicts.

Freudian theory was most controversial for its perseverance on the existence of the conflicts, including sexual, in childhood. Also, Freud saw the child as a passive receiver of adult behaviors. This theory gave a incredible weight on parents, who now evaluate every action base on the emotional effect it might have on the growing child. Numerous parents with some knowledge of Freudian theory have come to believe that the only way to evade future emotional disorder is to avoid imposing too many restrictions on the child.

Interactive approach

Perhaps the most useful method for parents to adopt is the interactive approach. In this theory, we see the infant as having some innate ability to organize experience. This ability, however, must be stimulated by experience. In this view, parents or caretakers play a vital role in the development of the child, for they provide the experiences that activate the child’s physical, social, intellectual, and emotional development. Within this framework, one would also recognize the potential damage that might be caused by neglect.

In the end, a parent can never be guided completely by the experts. What is best for baby is probably what instinctively feels best and most suitable to the parents. When parents are comfortable, the infant will most likely respond to that comfort.

History

Afghanistan was the main crossroads of the ancient Asian migration paths, and its history of early invasions and conquests. Afghanistan has been occupy ever since prehistory, although the first identified settlers were Aryans, went to Afghanistan around 1500B.C. while traveling their way to India.

Around 500’s B.C., Afghanistan was known as Aryana, it was part of the Persian Empire. Alexander the Great controlled the country in 328 B.C. and soon after Alexander’s death, it was separated between the Seleucid Empire of Persian Empire and Bactria kingdom at the north. However, around 100 B.C. all of these kingdoms fell to the nomadic tribes in the north from central Asia. Toward the end of the 600 A.D. and near the beginning of 700 A.D., the Arab armies occupied the country and converted the people to Islam. A few centuries later, many other small kingdoms developed in throughout Afghanistan and many were in power by Muslims. The Turkic tribes were the most dominated in these small kingdoms during the 900 A.D.

During the 1200 A.D. the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan destroyed the Turkic kingdoms. The new conqueror was Tamerlane (Timur), half-Turkic and half-Mongol made Afghanistan part of his empire in the 1300’s. About two centuries later Tamerlane’s successor Babur created the Indian Mughal (Mogul) empire.

By the 1600’s, the Mughals lost most of Afghanistan to the Persia Empire ruled by Safavid. However, Afghanistan asserted its independence then cast away the Persians in the early 1700’s. Then during 1747 the Afghan tribes selected Ahmad Shah Durrani, from the Sadozay region of the Abdali tribe to be the new ruler. Numerous tribes were disagree, nevertheless, by the start of the 1800’s. The rebellions toppled Ahmad Shah Durrani and following that were several civil wars fighting over the control of the country, which lead to the country defenseless to foreign power.

During the 1800’s, Afghanistan was long sought by Russia, Great Britain and Persia. In 1839, Dost Muhammad, a Barakzay tribal leader strongly reject to foreign control. The Britain wanted to place a friendly control in power to protect its interests in India. That developed into the Anglo-Afghan war in 1839 to 1842.

Dost Muhammad was captured by the British, but did not stop the rebellion in the country and the British withdrew. Following that for the next 36 years, Afghanistan’s was manifest by civil war, Russian invasions, Persian invasions, and, in 1878, a renewed war with Britain. Britain won the war in 1879 and made Afghanistan a buffer state between British and Russian.

In 1880 a new ruler Abd-ar-Rahman, came to power and work with the British to it benefited Afghanistan. Throughout his time in power, rebellious were reduce and new restrictions were place between Afghanistan, Russia, and British India.

In World War I Afghanistan remained neutral, except anti-British sentiment increase, nationalism strengthens and in 1919, nationalists led a war against Britain. Both sides won the war, except the British allowed the country to carry out its own foreign affairs. Afghanistan now was the power to domestic self-rule promised in an Anglo-Russian agreement in 1907.

The land

Afghanistan is a country high in attitude measuring of about 6000 feet above sea level. A central mountain system dominates the landscape. Located in the east, are the Hindu Kush ranges measuring more than 20,000 feet in height. The Koh-i-Baba and Paropamisus mountain ranges are between 10,000 to 15,000 feet tall, and stretches outward to the west.

Close to the western region is Seistan, a infertile plateau with an elevation of 1500 feet. To the east of Seistan are two deserts named the Registan and Dasht-i-Margo.

There are four main rivers, which flow from the central mountains and through many major cities in the country. At the northeast is the Amu Darya (Oxus), which forms part of the border with the Soviet Union. At the west is the Hari Rud flowing from the Paropamisus. The regions with the most resources are to the southwest in the valleys of the Helmand and its tributaries and the valley of the Kabul, flowing east to the Indus.

The climate in Afghanistan is extreme. The average temperature is 115°F in the summer to -10°F during the winter in the lower regions. Around the mountain regions the temperatures differ by as much as 50°F in a single day, with the southern mountains temperatures being the most moderate. Winds are strong right through most of the country. The average rainfall ranges from 2 inches per year in the west to 12 inches in the east.

The people

Afghanistan’s location in central Asia has created a diverse population. More than half the population are Pukhtun (also called Pashtun or Pathan) they speak Pushtu, a tribal group related to the Persians and Indians. The Hazara, they speak a mixture of Persian-Turkish dialect, the Turkic-speaking Uzbek and Turkoman, and the Tajik, whose language is Dari, a dialect of Persian.

Most Afghans live in rural villages with an urban population about 15% of the entire population. The biggest cities are Kandahar in the south, Kabul in the east, and Herat in the west.

After the Soviet invasion in 1979, about 3 million Afghans migrated to Pakistan.

Economy

Afghanistan’s economy is primary farming and herding animals. As well as other mineral resources such as copper, coal, oil, gas, iron, salt, gold, and lapis lazuli.

Afghanistan’s most precious farming commodity is the Karakul sheep. These sheep provide a steady supply of meat, milk, and fat for domestic use and their skins are often export. Horses, goats, cattle, donkeys, and camels also are raise. The main crops are corn, wheat, barley and other grains, cotton, sugar beets, and a great variety of fruits and vegetables.

Leather product, textile weaving, and flour milling are the main established manufacturing industries in the country.

To increase the transportation and communications facilities new projects have been started to develop coal and hydroelectric resources as well as improving education and health services.

After the Communist takeover in 1978 and Soviet invasion of in 1979, the western economic support was drying up. The main financial support was the Soviet Union.

Natural gas export is about 35% of all exports. Other exports goods are nuts, fruits nuts, carpets, karakul skins, and cotton. As well as the exporting of food, petroleum products, and other manufactured goods.

The country main trading partners are the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, West Germany, The Netherlands, and United States.

Modernization

Following the war with Britain, there was a new king, Amanullah. Who began to modernize and reconstruct the war torn country. The king suggests improvement, which were look upon as pro western policies, expensive, and unpopular. In1929 he was overtone during an extensive tribal rebellion. Mohammed Nadir came into power after defeating rival contenders and once again, Afghanistan was a neutral country throughout World War II.

Nadir Shah and his son, Mohammed Zahir Shah, the country was modernized and reconstructed very slowly. New democratic reforms and processes were introduced, the modern economy was developed, and that change the traditional society when the new Western ideas were adopted.

In 1964, the Afghans government received a new written constitution for the new democratic reforms in the country. However, in 1973 the constitution was push aside when Zahir Shah was overthrown by a group of army officers.

In 1978, the Communist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) came to power brought by a military coup. There were more civil unrest brought by the new government’s unpopular policies. In September of 1979, President Noor Mohammad Taraki was killed during upraise led by Hafizullah Amin, who was the prime minister. In Decemember of 1978, Soviet Union invaded the country with justification of the 1978 Treaty of Friendship.

In the midst of strong international disapproval for the invasion, the Soviets remove Hafizullah Amin from power. In 1986, Babrak Karmal led the new government, and later was Najibullah, who was very unpopular by the Afghans. Support and supplied by the Western and Middle Eastern countries, a new guerrilla movement forced the Soviets to keep heavy military occupying Afghanistan.

In 1989, the Soviets withdrew their military and the fight between the Najibullah government and a coalition of nine guerrilla movements escalated. In 1992, Najibullah resigned and the new government was to establish a republic and plan for elections, but the plan and the country began to divide.

Europe does not have an obvious outline of its border and it is to be thought of a continent more for its cultural and characteristics than for its natural features. The eastern region of Europe is referred as a line beside the Ural Mountains to the Caspian Sea and to the northeast is beside the Caucasus Mountains to the Black Sea.

Europe border does follow a clear distinct geographical features but it has the disadvantage of placing the western top of Turkey in Europe and the rest of Turkey in the Middle East. Europe also includes the western region of Russia and a vast eastern region of Russia in Asia.

British Isles, Iceland, the Spitsbergen islands, and the Shetland Islands in the North Atlantic are also part of the European continent. As well as Greenland, which is technically part of North America for its cultural and political association with Scandinavia, but it is part of Europe. In the Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus is the only island not considered part of Europe.

The land

Europe has its base along the Ural Mountains in the east and its end extend west into the Atlantic Ocean. The Scandinavian Peninsula in the north stretches to southeast toward the North and Baltic seas. The Norwegian Sea is to the west and north of Scandinavia and north of Russia is the Barents Sea. Each of these seas are connected to the Arctic Ocean. The southern region of Europe is the Balkan and Italian peninsulas stretching southward toward the Mediterranean Sea.

There are many large body of water surround Europe, making it the largest continent for the ratio of coastline and land. The estimated length of the coastline is about 50,000 miles (81,000 kilometers).

The basic regions of Europe can be separated into four sub regions from east to west, north and south. The northern region are the highlands stretching from the northern British Isles across Scandinavia and it is generally a harsh climate with poor soil and it is lightly inhabited. The Scandinavian countries are Sweden and Norway, which have the least productive land because of the effect of enormous glaciations from the last ice age.

To the south is a region of lowland stretches to western France, southeastern England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, northern Germany, Poland, Ukraine, and large sections of Russia. The landmass in this area is referred by the European as the Plain because the land is covered with rich materials, a lot of it were deposited by glaciers. The land is cultivated with fertile soil and the European Plain is heavily industrialized. These factors have formed one of the most densely populated regions in the continent and the world.

The next region, called the Central Uplands, is a plateau region that stretches from Spain through central France. It marks the southern boundary of the European Plain from Germany to Poland.

The alpine mountain is another region of Europe located in the south, extending from the Sierra Nevada mountain system of southern Spain to the Caucasus Mountains in southeastern part of Europe. It is clear that the southern region of Europe is still undergoing changes with volcanoes and other natural activities.

The Mountains

The southern region of Europe is mainly cover by mountains. Possibly the most famous and vital mountains are the Alps because it is a natural wall between the north and south of Europe.

The Alps are a complex mountain system with many different branches. The Alps runs from southeastern France to eastern Austria. The eastern end of the Alps splits to one branch called the Dinaric Alps, it stretch south through the Balkan Peninsula. The other branch is called the Carpathian Mountains, which stretch from east to the Czech and Slovak republics, and on to the south of Romania.

The geological evidence shows Alps mountains are young with its sharp peaks and steep sides. The glaciers are the reminders of Europe’s geological history, it indicate that a great area of the continent was once covered with ice. These glaciers of past ice ages carved deep alpine valleys of Switzerland and northern Italy.

In addition, the mountain range in Europe is the Pyrenees, which separate Spain and France. The Pyrenees form a natural wall between the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Europe. In southeastern Spain, the Sierra Nevada mountain range is part of a group of mountain ranges known as the Sierra Nevada system.

Other significant mountain ranges in southern Europe are the Apennines, which stretches from the Italian peninsula. Also, the Balkan Mountains, which stretches from the east and west to southern Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. North Balkans is the Transylvania Alps stretches from east to west and connect to the Carpathian range at its southern tip.

To the east of Europe, the Ural Mountains divide Russia on a north to south axis. Unlike the alpine mountain system, the Urals are low in altitude and have a rounded appearance characteristic of older mountain systems.

Between the Caspian and Black seas, are the Caucasus Mountains a natural land-water wall between Europe and the Middle East. The Mt. Elbrus is the tallest peak in the Caucasus Mountains and it is the tallest mountain in Europe at 18,510 feet (5640 meters) above sea level. The lowest elevation in Europe, measured at 92 feet (28 meters) below sea level located at the northeast, on the northern shore of the Caspian Sea.

Rivers

The rivers in Europe are the key to its economic advances. Several of the rivers are deep and wide enough to provide passage for ships traveling inland, moving goods and people. Many of these rivers are connected by man-made canals to enhance their effectiveness as shipping routes. As a result, it is feasible to travel from one end of the continent to the other with a small boat.

Because of Europe’s shape with its peninsular arrangement, most of the continent’s rivers flow from the central mountain regions and then flow down to the surrounding seas. Some of the rivers that flow down to the Atlantic Ocean are the Guadalquivir, Guadiana, Tagus, and Douro rivers of Portugal and Spain; and the Garonne, Loire, and in France is the Seine rivers.

One of the most significant rivers in northern Europe is the Rhine. The river start in the eastern Switzerland and flows 820 miles (1320 kilometers) throughout Germany and The Netherlands and into the North Sea. The Elbe also flows into the North Sea and it passes through Germany and the Czech Republic then connect with the Baltic Sea through Poland.

Over in Eastern Europe, one of the most important rivers is the Danube. The Danube starts in the southern Germany and flows 1750 miles (2820 kilometers) into the Black Sea. The Danube passes through and forms some of the borders of Slovakia, Austria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria.

The longest river in Europe is the Volga. It is about 2290 miles (3690 kilometers) from its starting point near Moscow at the east and then flow south to the Caspian Sea. Many other rivers flow down into the Volga, stretching its basin into Russian.

The Dnieper is Europe’s third longest river and the Dniester, both run through Ukraine and flow into the Black Sea.

Along the southern Europe, majority are the Mediterranean rivers and their flows are more seasonal, by drying up through the warm summer months because of little rain. Except for the Rhône in France, the Ebro in Spain, and the Po river in Italy. These three rivers get most of their water up in the mountains toward the Mediterranean basin.